How to Train Your Horse Using Positive Reinforcement

Training a horse is one of the most rewarding aspects of horse ownership, but it can also be one of the most challenging. Horses are intelligent, sensitive creatures with unique personalities, and the way you approach training has a huge impact on your results. One of the most effective, humane, and enjoyable methods available is positive reinforcement training. This approach builds trust, strengthens your bond, and helps your horse learn in a way that’s both fun and lasting.

In this post, we’ll dive into what positive reinforcement really means, why it works so well with horses, and how you can use it to shape your horse’s behavior in a safe and effective way.

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What Is Positive Reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement is a training method that rewards a horse for performing a desired behavior. Instead of focusing on punishment or corrections when the horse does something wrong, you focus on rewarding the horse when it does something right. Over time, the horse learns to associate the desired behavior with a good outcome and is more likely to repeat it.

In practice, this often looks like giving your horse a treat, verbal praise, or a scratch in a favorite spot when they do what you ask. The reward doesn’t always have to be food—it just has to be something your horse values.

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Why Positive Reinforcement Works for Horses

Horses are prey animals, and their first instinct is often to avoid danger. Traditional training methods that rely on punishment or pressure can create fear, stress, or even resistance. Positive reinforcement, on the other hand, taps into the horse’s natural curiosity and desire to seek pleasant experiences.

Here are some key benefits:

• Builds trust – Your horse sees you as a source of safety and rewards rather than fear or pressure.
• Encourages faster learning – Horses are quick to repeat behaviors that bring good results.
• Reduces anxiety – Training sessions become a positive experience, not something to dread.
• Strengthens your bond – Your horse begins to enjoy working with you.
• Creates willing participation – Instead of forcing compliance, your horse chooses to engage.

This method doesn’t just change how your horse behaves; it transforms your entire relationship.

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Getting Started With Positive Reinforcement

If you’re new to this style of training, here are the basics to set you up for success:

1. Choose a Reward

Most horses respond well to small treats such as carrot slices, apple chunks, or commercial horse treats. If your horse isn’t food-motivated, you can use scratches on the withers, verbal praise, or a short break as rewards.

👉 Important: Keep food rewards small and healthy to avoid overfeeding.

2. Use a Marker Signal

A marker is a sound or signal that tells your horse the exact moment they got it right. Many trainers use a clicker (from clicker training) or a simple word like “Yes!” in a consistent tone. The marker bridges the gap between the correct behavior and the reward.

3. Start Simple

Begin with easy behaviors your horse already does naturally. For example:

• Standing still
• Lowering their head
• Touching a target (like a cone or your hand)

Each time your horse does the behavior, mark it and reward immediately.

4. Be Consistent

Consistency is the key to success. Always mark and reward the behavior you want, and avoid rewarding unwanted behaviors.

5. Keep Sessions Short

Horses learn best in short, frequent sessions—think 5 to 15 minutes. End on a positive note, and your horse will look forward to the next session.

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Practical Exercises to Try

Here are a few positive reinforcement exercises you can start with:

Target Training

Teach your horse to touch a target, such as a ball on a stick or your hand. This simple exercise builds focus and can be used later to guide your horse into trailers, over obstacles, or into new environments.

Standing Quietly

Reward your horse for standing still and calm while tied, being groomed, or saddled. Over time, they’ll learn patience and relaxation.

Leading Manners

Instead of correcting your horse for rushing or lagging, reward them for walking politely beside you. Positive reinforcement makes leading safer and more enjoyable.

Trailer Loading

Many horses fear trailers, but positive reinforcement can turn it into a rewarding experience. Reward each small step toward the trailer—approaching it, sniffing it, putting in a hoof—until your horse willingly loads.

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Common Mistakes to Avoid

While positive reinforcement is powerful, there are pitfalls to watch out for:

• Rewarding too late – If the reward doesn’t come quickly, your horse may not understand what behavior you’re reinforcing.
• Inconsistent signals – Always use the same marker and reward behavior to avoid confusion.
• Overusing treats – Be mindful of how many treats you give. Mix in scratches, praise, and breaks as rewards.
• Ignoring unwanted behaviors – Don’t accidentally reward pushiness or nipping when offering food. If this happens, take a step back and reinforce calm, polite behavior instead.

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Blending Positive Reinforcement With Traditional Training

You don’t have to abandon all other training methods to use positive reinforcement. Many horse owners successfully combine it with traditional techniques like pressure-and-release. For example, you can apply gentle pressure with the lead rope, and the moment the horse responds correctly, release the pressure and add a reward.

This blended approach allows for clear communication while keeping training sessions enjoyable and stress-free.

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Building a Lasting Partnership

At the heart of positive reinforcement is the idea of partnership. Instead of forcing obedience, you invite your horse to be an active participant in the learning process. The result isn’t just a well-trained horse—it’s a horse that trusts you, enjoys working with you, and looks forward to training sessions.

When you choose positive reinforcement, you’re not only teaching skills; you’re also building a foundation of respect, trust, and friendship. And that’s what true horsemanship is all about.

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Final Thoughts

Positive reinforcement is more than a training technique—it’s a philosophy that changes how you see your horse. By rewarding desired behaviors, keeping sessions consistent and fun, and respecting your horse’s intelligence, you’ll unlock new levels of partnership and communication. Whether you’re teaching simple ground manners or tackling big challenges like trailer loading, this method empowers you and your horse to grow together.

So, the next time you head out to the barn, grab a pocket full of treats, your clicker or marker word, and a big dose of patience. You might be surprised at just how much your horse is willing to learn when training becomes a game worth playing.

Common Horse Health Issues and How to Prevent Them

Owning a horse is one of the most rewarding experiences in the world, but it also comes with a great deal of responsibility. Horses are strong, beautiful animals—but like all living creatures, they are vulnerable to certain health issues. As a horse owner, being able to recognize common problems early and knowing how to prevent them is key to keeping your equine companion happy, healthy, and thriving.

In this article, we’ll explore some of the most common horse health concerns, what signs to look for, and practical steps you can take to prevent them.

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Colic

Colic is one of the most dreaded words in the horse world. It refers to abdominal pain, which can be caused by gas, impaction, twisted intestines, or other digestive issues.

Signs of Colic:

• Restlessness—pawing, rolling, or lying down frequently
• Looking at or biting at the flanks
• Reduced or no appetite
• Little or no manure output
• Sweating or heavy breathing

Prevention Tips:

• Provide constant access to clean, fresh water
• Feed high-quality forage and limit sudden changes in diet
• Avoid feeding moldy hay or grain
• Maintain a regular exercise routine to keep digestion active
• Schedule regular deworming and dental care to reduce impactions

Colic can range from mild to life-threatening. If you suspect colic, contact your vet immediately—early intervention often makes all the difference.

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Laminitis

Laminitis is a painful condition that affects the sensitive laminae inside the hoof, which connect the hoof wall to the coffin bone. When these tissues become inflamed, the horse may experience extreme discomfort and, in severe cases, permanent lameness.

Signs of Laminitis:

• Reluctance to move or shifting weight from one hoof to another
• Standing with front feet stretched forward (“sawhorse stance”)
• Heat in the hooves and a strong digital pulse
• Lameness, especially in the front feet

Prevention Tips:

• Avoid feeding excessive grain or lush pasture, especially in spring
• Keep overweight horses on a controlled diet to reduce stress on hooves
• Provide regular farrier care to maintain proper hoof balance
• Manage underlying conditions such as Cushing’s disease or insulin resistance

Laminitis is a true emergency—if you see signs, call your vet immediately and keep your horse on soft ground until help arrives.

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Respiratory Issues

Horses have sensitive respiratory systems, and problems like heaves (similar to asthma), influenza, and strangles can spread quickly in barns and boarding facilities.

Signs of Respiratory Trouble:

• Frequent coughing or wheezing
• Nasal discharge (clear, yellow, or thick depending on cause)
• Labored breathing, especially after exercise
• Reduced stamina and lethargy

Prevention Tips:

• Provide good ventilation in stables to reduce dust and ammonia buildup
• Soak hay or feed haylage for horses with dust allergies
• Keep barns clean, with dry bedding and proper airflow
• Vaccinate against equine influenza and other infectious diseases
• Quarantine new arrivals before introducing them to the herd

Respiratory health is essential for a horse’s performance and overall well-being, so proactive management makes a huge difference.

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Skin Conditions

From minor irritations to persistent infections, skin problems are very common in horses. Conditions like rain rot, ringworm, sweet itch, and mud fever are often seen in different climates.

Signs of Skin Problems:

• Hair loss in patches
• Scabs, crusts, or lesions on the skin
• Excessive scratching or rubbing against fences and posts
• Swelling or open sores

Prevention Tips:

• Groom daily to spot early signs of irritation
• Keep horses dry when possible; provide shelter in wet weather
• Wash and disinfect grooming tools to prevent the spread of fungal infections
• Use fly sheets, sprays, or masks to reduce insect irritation
• Maintain a balanced diet to support skin and coat health

While many skin issues are more irritating than dangerous, they can quickly escalate if left untreated.

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Parasites

Internal parasites (worms) and external parasites (lice, mites, ticks) are common concerns for horse owners. Left unchecked, parasites can cause weight loss, colic, poor coat condition, and anemia.

Signs of Parasitic Infestation:

• Dull coat or weight loss despite good feed
• Tail rubbing or excessive scratching
• Diarrhea or digestive upset
• Visible worms in manure (in severe cases)

Prevention Tips:

• Follow a vet-guided deworming schedule (avoid over-worming to prevent resistance)
• Rotate pastures and avoid overcrowding to reduce parasite exposure
• Regularly clean stalls and paddocks
• Groom frequently to check for external pests

A proactive parasite control plan is one of the cornerstones of horse health.

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Hoof Problems

A horse’s hooves are often described as the foundation of its health. Conditions such as thrush, white line disease, and hoof abscesses can cause pain and lameness if not managed properly.

Signs of Hoof Issues:

• Foul odor from the hoof (common with thrush)
• Lameness or tenderness when walking
• Heat in the hoof or swelling in the lower leg
• Discharge or abscess breakthrough at the coronet band

Prevention Tips:

• Schedule regular farrier visits (every 6–8 weeks)
• Pick out hooves daily to remove stones, mud, and debris
• Keep stalls dry and clean to prevent bacterial growth
• Provide balanced nutrition with adequate biotin, zinc, and amino acids

Healthy hooves are critical to your horse’s mobility—regular care and attention are non-negotiable.

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Dental Issues

Horses’ teeth grow continuously, and sharp edges or uneven wear can cause pain, difficulty chewing, and even weight loss.

Signs of Dental Trouble:

• Dropping feed or chewing awkwardly
• Excessive salivation
• Undigested grain in manure
• Head tossing or resistance to the bit

Prevention Tips:

• Schedule routine dental exams (at least once per year, sometimes twice for younger or senior horses)
• Watch for changes in eating habits or weight
• Ensure horses chew evenly by monitoring wear patterns

Dental health is often overlooked, but it plays a huge role in digestion and comfort.

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Eye Problems

Horses’ large, sensitive eyes are prone to injuries, infections, and conditions such as conjunctivitis or uveitis.

Signs of Eye Trouble:

• Excessive tearing or discharge
• Squinting or sensitivity to light
• Swelling or cloudiness in the eye
• Rubbing the eye against objects

Prevention Tips:

• Check eyes daily for foreign objects or irritation
• Use fly masks during insect season
• Maintain safe fencing and stalls to prevent injuries
• Seek veterinary care promptly for any swelling, cloudiness, or vision changes

Eye problems can worsen quickly, so fast intervention is crucial.

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Weight Management and Metabolic Disorders

Conditions like equine metabolic syndrome (EMS) and Cushing’s disease (PPID) are increasingly common, especially in older or easy-keeper horses. These disorders affect how horses process sugar and can increase the risk of laminitis.

Signs of Metabolic Issues:

• Obesity or difficulty losing weight
• Cresty neck or fat deposits along the body
• Excessive drinking and urination (common with Cushing’s)
• Lethargy or repeated bouts of laminitis

Prevention Tips:

• Maintain a proper diet with limited sugars and starches
• Provide regular exercise, even for retired or light-use horses
• Work with your vet to monitor bloodwork and hormone levels
• Use grazing muzzles or dry lots for overweight horses in lush pastures

Early management can prevent long-term complications.

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Final Thoughts

Being a responsible horse owner means staying proactive about health care. Many of the most common horse health issues can be prevented—or at least managed—through good nutrition, routine veterinary and farrier care, proper housing, and daily observation.

Remember: horses often hide discomfort until problems are advanced. By getting to know your horse’s normal behavior, appetite, and movement, you’ll be able to spot changes quickly and act before a small issue becomes a major one.

A healthy horse isn’t just a joy to ride or work with—it’s a beloved companion who deserves the very best care you can provide.

The Importance of Proper Horse Nutrition

Caring for horses goes far beyond grooming, training, and providing shelter. At the heart of equine health lies one of the most important aspects of ownership: nutrition. What your horse eats directly impacts their energy levels, growth, performance, immune system, coat, hooves, and even their behavior. Whether you’re a beginner horse owner or an experienced equestrian, understanding the importance of proper horse nutrition is essential to keeping your equine partner healthy and happy.

In this post, we’ll explore why nutrition matters so much, the essential components of a balanced equine diet, common mistakes horse owners make, and how to adapt nutrition to your horse’s individual needs.

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Why Proper Nutrition Matters

Horses are natural grazers. In the wild, they spend up to 18 hours a day foraging and nibbling on grasses. Their digestive systems are designed for a steady intake of high-fiber foods rather than large, infrequent meals. When we bring horses into a domesticated setting, it becomes our responsibility to mimic that natural feeding pattern as closely as possible.

Without the right nutrition:

• Horses may develop digestive issues like colic or ulcers.
• They can experience weight loss or obesity, depending on deficiencies or excesses.
• Their performance and energy will decline.
• Long-term malnutrition can lead to weakened hooves, poor coat condition, and increased risk of disease.

Proper nutrition is more than just feeding hay and grain—it’s about balance, consistency, and tailoring the diet to the horse’s unique lifestyle.

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The Building Blocks of a Balanced Equine Diet

1. Forage – The Foundation

Forage (hay and pasture grasses) should make up at least 50–90% of a horse’s diet. Horses are herbivores with digestive systems specialized for high-fiber intake. Good-quality hay or pasture provides:

• Fiber for gut health and digestion
• Energy for daily activities
• Essential vitamins and minerals

The type of hay matters—grass hays like timothy, orchard grass, or brome are often lower in calories and great for easy keepers, while legume hays like alfalfa are richer in protein and calcium, making them better for growing foals, lactating mares, or performance horses needing extra energy.

2. Water – The Forgotten Nutrient

A horse can live weeks without food but only a few days without water. An average adult horse drinks 5–15 gallons a day, depending on temperature, activity, and diet. Clean, fresh water should always be available, as dehydration can quickly become life-threatening.

3. Concentrates – Grain and Beyond

Concentrates (grains, pellets, sweet feeds) provide additional calories and nutrients for horses with higher energy needs, such as working horses, pregnant mares, or those that struggle to maintain weight. However, feeding too much grain can upset the digestive system, leading to colic or laminitis. The key is moderation and choosing the right type of concentrate for the individual horse.

4. Protein

Protein is essential for muscle growth, repair, and development. While many horse owners assume their horses need large amounts of protein, most adult horses get plenty from forage. Young, growing horses and lactating mares may require higher levels.

5. Vitamins and Minerals

Horses require a delicate balance of vitamins and minerals, including calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and selenium. Deficiencies or imbalances can cause serious health issues. For example:

• Calcium and phosphorus must be in the correct ratio for bone health.
• Selenium is vital for muscle function but toxic in high amounts.

Many owners supplement with a salt block or mineral lick, but depending on the horse’s diet and regional forage quality, targeted supplements may also be necessary.

6. Fats

Fats provide a dense, slow-burning source of energy and can improve coat condition. Vegetable oils or flaxseed are common fat supplements, particularly for performance horses.

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Factors That Influence a Horse’s Nutritional Needs

Not all horses have the same dietary requirements. Here are key factors to consider:

• Age – Foals and young horses need higher protein and energy for growth, while senior horses may need specialized feeds that are easier to chew and digest.
• Workload – A lightly ridden trail horse will need far fewer calories than a competitive jumper or racehorse.
• Breed – Some breeds, like Arabians and ponies, are “easy keepers” that thrive on minimal feed, while Thoroughbreds or high-performance breeds may require extra energy.
• Health Status – Horses with metabolic disorders (like Cushing’s or insulin resistance) need specialized low-sugar diets.
• Environment – Horses in cold climates burn more calories to stay warm, while those in hot environments require more water and electrolytes.

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Common Mistakes in Horse Feeding

1. Overfeeding Grain – Too much grain is one of the leading causes of colic and laminitis.
2. Ignoring Body Condition – Horses should neither be too thin nor overweight. Regularly assess their body condition score (BCS).
3. Sudden Diet Changes – Abrupt changes can upset the gut flora and cause digestive upset. Transition new feeds gradually over 7–10 days.
4. Poor Quality Hay – Dusty, moldy, or nutrient-poor hay can lead to respiratory problems and malnutrition.
5. Neglecting Salt – Horses need access to plain salt to balance electrolytes, especially in hot weather.

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Signs of Poor Nutrition

Watch for these red flags that may indicate your horse’s diet is out of balance:

• Dull coat or excessive shedding
• Weight loss or obesity
• Lethargy or poor performance
• Cracked, brittle hooves
• Behavioral changes (irritability, nervousness)
• Frequent illnesses or slow healing

Catching these signs early can prevent more serious health issues.

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Creating a Nutrition Plan for Your Horse

The best approach to equine nutrition is personalized care. Here are some practical steps:

1. Evaluate forage quality – Get your hay tested if possible to understand its nutrient content.
2. Balance the diet – Add concentrates or supplements only if forage alone doesn’t meet your horse’s needs.
3. Monitor body condition – Adjust feed amounts based on changes in weight, activity, and health.
4. Work with a veterinarian or equine nutritionist – Professionals can help tailor a diet for your specific horse.
5. Consistency is key – Feed at the same times daily to support digestive health.

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The Bottom Line

Proper nutrition is the cornerstone of equine health. By providing balanced forage, clean water, the right supplements, and tailoring feed to your horse’s lifestyle, you set the stage for a healthier, happier animal. Good nutrition doesn’t just fuel performance—it supports longevity, reduces the risk of disease, and enhances your horse’s overall quality of life.

Investing the time to learn about your horse’s dietary needs will pay off in fewer vet bills, better performance, and, most importantly, a strong, lasting partnership with your equine companion.

How to Care for Your Horse’s Hooves – A Complete Guide

When it comes to horse care, there’s an old saying: “No hoof, no horse.” And it’s true—healthy hooves are absolutely essential for your horse’s overall well-being. Without proper hoof care, even the strongest, best-trained horse can quickly become lame or uncomfortable. Whether you’re a first-time horse owner or an experienced rider looking to refine your care routine, understanding how to properly maintain your horse’s hooves will keep them sound, comfortable, and ready for work or play.

In this guide, we’ll cover everything you need to know about hoof care, from daily cleaning to farrier schedules and dietary support.

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Why Hoof Care Is So Important

A horse’s hooves are more than just “feet.” They are complex structures designed to support the entire weight of the animal, absorb shock, and provide traction on different surfaces. Each hoof contains the frog, sole, wall, and sensitive laminae that work together to keep your horse mobile and balanced.

Because horses spend so much time on their feet, problems in the hooves can quickly lead to pain, lameness, or even long-term health issues. Proper hoof care helps prevent common issues like thrush, cracks, abscesses, or laminitis while ensuring your horse stays active and happy.

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Daily Hoof Cleaning – Picking Your Horse’s Hooves

The simplest yet most important part of hoof care is daily cleaning. Every time you groom your horse, you should pick out their hooves. Here’s how:

1. Secure your horse safely. Tie them to a solid post with a quick-release knot or have someone hold them.
2. Start at the front left hoof. Stand beside the leg (never directly behind or in front), run your hand down the leg, and apply gentle pressure behind the fetlock to encourage your horse to lift their foot.
3. Use a hoof pick. Work from heel to toe, removing dirt, rocks, and manure from the grooves (called the sulci) and the frog.
4. Check for problems. Look for signs of thrush (a foul smell, black gooey material), cracks, punctures, or heat.
5. Repeat for all four feet. Follow a consistent order so you don’t miss any.

Daily cleaning is especially important if your horse is turned out in wet, muddy conditions or if they’re stabled on damp bedding. Even a small stone lodged in the sole can cause bruising or abscesses if not removed promptly.

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Farrier Visits – How Often Should They Come?

Even with daily cleaning, your horse’s hooves will need regular professional trimming or shoeing. Most horses should see a farrier every 6–8 weeks, although the exact schedule can vary depending on:

• Age – Younger horses may need more frequent trims as their hooves grow faster.
• Workload – Performance horses often need more regular attention, especially if they wear shoes.
• Hoof Growth Rate – Some horses naturally grow hooves more quickly than others.
• Environment – Horses on soft, wet ground may require more frequent trims than those on dry, rocky terrain.

During a farrier visit, the professional will trim excess hoof growth, balance the foot, and apply shoes if necessary. Even if your horse is barefoot, trims are essential to prevent flaring, cracking, or uneven wear.

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Signs It’s Time to Call the Farrier

While regular scheduling is best, sometimes hooves will tell you they need attention sooner. Look for:

• Hoof walls that are chipping or cracking
• Long toes or uneven wear
• Shoes that are loose, shifted, or missing
• A change in your horse’s gait or soundness
• Hooves that look unbalanced when viewed from the front or side

If you notice any of these, it’s better to schedule an early visit than wait for the regular appointment.

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Thrush, Cracks, and Other Common Hoof Problems

No matter how diligent you are, hoof problems can still pop up. Here are the most common issues horse owners face:

• Thrush – A bacterial infection that thrives in wet, dirty conditions. It creates a foul smell and black discharge in the frog. Treatment includes thorough cleaning, disinfectant solutions, and keeping the horse on dry footing.
• Hoof Cracks – Can occur from dryness, poor trimming, or trauma. Minor cracks can often be managed with proper trimming, while severe ones may require farrier intervention.
• Abscesses – Pockets of infection inside the hoof, often causing sudden lameness. Abscesses usually need to be drained by a farrier or veterinarian.
• Laminitis – A serious condition where the sensitive laminae inside the hoof become inflamed. It requires immediate veterinary care.

Preventing these issues is easier than treating them, which is why daily care and regular farrier visits are so important.

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Hoof Health from the Inside Out – Nutrition Matters

What your horse eats directly affects the strength and quality of their hooves. A balanced diet with the right nutrients is essential. Key nutrients for hoof health include:

• Biotin – A B-vitamin that supports hoof growth and strength.
• Methionine – An amino acid important for keratin production.
• Zinc & Copper – Trace minerals needed for healthy horn and connective tissue.
• Omega-3 Fatty Acids – Support circulation and reduce inflammation.

Most horses get these from a high-quality diet, but supplements are available for horses with particularly brittle or weak hooves. Always consult your vet or equine nutritionist before adding supplements.

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Environmental Management – Where Your Horse Lives

The environment plays a huge role in hoof health. Some tips:

• Avoid constant wetness. Standing in mud or wet bedding softens hooves and encourages thrush.
• Dry turnout areas. Provide gravel or well-drained footing in high-traffic zones like gates and water troughs.
• Clean stalls daily. Urine and manure break down hoof structure if left for too long.
• Condition the hooves. In very dry climates, occasional application of hoof conditioners can help prevent excessive brittleness.

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Shoes vs. Barefoot – Which Is Best?

One of the most debated topics in the horse world is whether horses need shoes. The truth is: it depends.

• Shoes may be necessary if your horse works on hard, rocky ground, needs correction for hoof imbalances, or competes in demanding sports.
• Barefoot horses can do very well if their hooves are strong, well-shaped, and they live in a supportive environment.

Discuss the best option for your horse with your farrier, who can evaluate their hooves, workload, and living conditions.

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Building a Hoof Care Routine

Consistency is the key to healthy hooves. Here’s a sample daily/weekly routine:

• Daily: Pick out hooves, check for injuries, and note any changes in heat or smell.
• Weekly: Check for signs of uneven wear, cracks, or loose shoes.
• Every 6–8 Weeks: Schedule farrier trim or shoe reset.
• Seasonally: Evaluate nutrition and environment—make changes if hooves seem brittle, soft, or slow to grow.

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Final Thoughts

Caring for your horse’s hooves doesn’t have to be overwhelming, but it does require attention and consistency. By cleaning hooves daily, scheduling regular farrier visits, providing proper nutrition, and maintaining a healthy living environment, you’ll help ensure your horse stays sound and happy. Remember the golden rule: no hoof, no horse.

Your horse relies on you to keep their hooves in top shape, and with a good routine in place, you’ll be rewarded with a partner who’s comfortable, confident, and ready to go wherever the trail—or the arena—takes you.